Chapter2（Revealing the Superiority and Inferiority, Shallowness and Depth of the Titles of the Various Sutras）
The titles of the Āgama sutras, for instance, explain the ultimate principle of these sutras, which is that all things are impermanent. These titles are a hundred, thousand, and ten thousand times superior to the two characters meaning existence and nonexistence used in the titles of non-Buddhist scriptures. Followers of all the ninety-five non-Buddhist schools, hearing the titles of the Āgama sutras, abandoned their erroneous views and converted to the truth of impermanence. Those who hear the titles of the Wisdom sutras realize the three teachings that all things are non-substantial in themselves, that the Middle Way is independent of non-substantiality and temporary existence, and that it is inseparably united with them. Those who hear the title of the Flower Garland Sutra perceive either of the last two of the above teachings.
Those who hear the titles of the Mahāvairochana Sutra as well as the Correct and Equal and the Wisdom sutras understand that all things, when analyzed, prove to be without substance, or that all things are non-substantial in themselves; that non-substantiality is independent of the Middle Way and temporary existence, or that it is inseparable from them; that the Middle Way is independent of non-substantiality and temporary existence, or that it is inseparably united with them. However, those who listen to the titles of such provisional sutras are unable to realize the benefit of perfect enlightenment that arises from the teachings of the mutual possession of the Ten Worlds, the hundred worlds and thousand factors, and three thousand realms.
Notes
1. A view expounded in the connecting teaching, or introductory Mahayana, which holds that, because all things arise through dependent origination, their existence is in itself non-substantial.
2. A view expounded in the specific teaching, which holds that the three truths are separate from and independent of one another.
3. A view expounded in the perfect teaching, which sets forth the mutually inclusive relationship of the ultimate reality and all phenomena, and the unification of the three truths. In other words, the view that each of the three truths possesses all three within itself.
4. A view expounded in the Tripitaka teaching, which means that all phenomena are viewed as non-substantial when analyzed in terms of their constituent elements. This is in contrast to the view mentioned above (n. 1), that all phenomena are without substance in and of themselves. The teachings of this category were expounded primarily for persons of the two vehicles and secondarily for bodhisattvas.
5. The view of non-substantiality expounded in the Tripitaka teaching, meaning that it is the only reality and excluding all other views or truths.
6. A view expounded in the connecting teaching that everything is essentially without substance, yet manifests a temporary reality or phenomenal aspect.
Lecture
Here, based on the fact that the titles of the various sutras express the core principles expounded within each scripture, the doctrines indicated by the titles of non-Buddhist scriptures, the Agama sutras, the Wisdom (Prajñā) sutras, the Flower Garland (Avataṃsaka) sutra, the Mahāvairocana sutra, and others are compared and contrasted to explain their relative superiority and inferiority. Ultimately, they are all refuted on the grounds that none of these sutras reveal the virtue of the wonderful enlightenment of the mutual possession of the Ten Worlds, the hundred worlds and thousand factors, and the three thousand realms—the ultimate principle expounded exclusively in the Lotus Sutra.
The Two Characters A and U in the Titles of Non-Buddhist Scriptures
It is stated that the titles of non-Buddhist scriptures consist of the two characters A-U (阿漚).
Regarding this, the Great Teacher Tiantai writes in The Words and Phrases of the Lotus Sutra (Hokke Mongu):
“Furthermore, as for ‘This is what’ [如是, nyoze], it is placed at the beginning of the sutras of all Buddhas of the three existences. That the path of all Buddhas is identical and does not contend with the mundane world is the worldly siddhānta. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states that indicating the time and place to arouse faith in people is the individual siddhānta. Moreover, refuting the non-Buddhist two characters A-U (阿歐) as neither ‘thus’ nor ‘right’ [neither nyo nor ze] is the curative siddhānta.”
Here, Tiantai refers to “the two characters A-U of the non-Buddhists.” Although the characters differ between 阿漚 and 阿歐, the Great Teacher Miao-lo (Myōraku), in his Annotations on “The Words and Phrases of the Lotus Sutra” (Hokke Mongu Ki), clarifies this passage as follows:
“A signifies nonexistence, and U signifies existence. All non-Buddhist scriptures place these two characters at their beginning.”
Now, A is the transliteration of the first letter of the fifty characters of the Siddhaṃ script (the Sanskrit syllabary), a sound produced by opening the mouth. This character carries a negating meaning. It is for this reason that Miao-lo explains, “A means nonexistence.” Next, U (漚) is the final character among the fifty Siddhaṃ letters, a sound produced by closing the mouth. Miao-lo interprets this as “U means existence,” which is understood to signify manifestation or being. Furthermore, A and U represent the initial and final sounds—that is, the beginning and the end—of the fifty Siddhaṃ characters; in common transliteration, this corresponds to A-Un (A-Hūṃ / Om).
In any case, A and U express existence and nonexistence (being and non-being), and non-Buddhist scriptures adopt these as their fundamental titles.
In the aforementioned Words and Phrases, Tiantai explains that while the non-Buddhist characters A-U represent the dual paths of existence and nonexistence, Buddhist scriptures place “This is what” (如是, nyoze / Thus) at their opening specifically to refute them, demonstrating that their doctrines are “neither thus (nyo) nor right (ze).”
Impermanence, Analytical Emptiness, Embodied Emptiness, Merely-Empty, Non-Merely-Empty, Merely-Middle, and Non-Merely-Middle
Each Buddhist sutra places “This is what” (nyoze) at the beginning; this “This is what” designates the title of the sutra, and the title embodies the core principle expounded within that scripture.
Therefore, by comparing and contrasting the titles of the sutras, one can clarify their relative superiority and inferiority, shallowness and depth.
The criteria for evaluating this hierarchy are the doctrinal concepts listed here.
First, regarding “impermanence” (mujō): as the passage states, “The title of the Agama sutras contains the essence of the entire sutra—the principle of impermanence,” the Agama sutras expound the doctrine of the impermanence of all things and phenomena. “Agama” is the phonetic transcription of the Sanskrit āgama, meaning “transmitted teachings.” In Tiantai’s classification of the five periods and eight teachings, it belongs to the second period (the Agama period) and the Tripitaka teaching (蔵教, zōkyō). Although it is the most rudimentary level within Buddhism, the Daishonin states that it is still “a hundred, thousand, ten thousand times superior” to non-Buddhist doctrines.
Next, “analytical emptiness” (折空, shakkū) is a doctrine contrasting with “embodied emptiness” (体空, taikū). It is the view of emptiness found in the Tripitaka teaching, wherein all physical and spiritual phenomena are analyzed and broken down into their constituent elements, pursuing them down to infinitesimal particles until one finally arrives at “emptiness.”
In contrast, “embodied emptiness” (taikū) belongs to the Connecting teaching (通教, tsūgyō), wherein one directly perceives and realizes that the very essence (tai) of physical and spiritual phenomena is inherently empty, without the need to analyze or dismantle them. In other words, because all phenomena arise from causes and conditions (dependent origination) and lack independent self-nature, the actual entity of all phenomena is viewed as inherently like an illusion.
Furthermore, “merely-empty” (但空, tankū) is a one-sided doctrine that perceives only the principle of emptiness in all physical and spiritual phenomena while failing to see the “non-empty” aspect (the aspect of provisional existence and function); this is the shortcoming into which practitioners of the two vehicles in the Tripitaka teaching fell.
“Non-merely-empty” (不但空, futankū) is the view of emptiness in the Connecting teaching; while seeing all phenomena as thoroughly empty, it does not lean exclusively toward emptiness, but also discerns the “non-empty” aspect.
“Merely-middle” (但中, tanchū) is the principle of the Specific teaching (別教, bekkyō); among the three truths of emptiness, provisional existence, and the middle (kū-ke-chū), it sets aside the two extremes of emptiness and provisionality to establish only the Middle Way as an independent truth.
“Non-merely-middle” (不但中, futanchū) is the principle expounded in the Perfect teaching (円教, engyō); rather than establishing the Middle apart from the extremes of emptiness and provisionality as the Specific teaching does, it reveals the truth of the Middle that harmoniously encompasses both the truths of emptiness and provisionality within the perfectly integrated three truths.
From the above, in short, beginning from the non-Buddhist characters A-U, and moving through impermanence, analytical emptiness, merely-empty, embodied emptiness, non-merely-empty, merely-middle, and non-merely-middle, the content of these doctrines progressively becomes deeper and more vast.
When viewing the sacred teachings of the Buddha’s lifetime—classified by Tiantai into the five periods—through the lens of the four teachings of doctrine (Tripitaka, Connecting, Specific, and Perfect):
- The first period, the Flower Garland period, combines the Specific teaching with the Perfect teaching.
- The second period, the Agama period, expounds solely the Tripitaka teaching.
- The third period, the Correct and Equal (Vaipulya) period, expounds all four teachings—Tripitaka, Connecting, Specific, and Perfect—in juxtaposition (tai) to address the differing capacities of the listeners.
- The fourth period, the Wisdom (Prajñā) period, expounds the Perfect teaching while including and carrying (tai) the Connecting and Specific teachings.
Consequently:
- The title of the Agama sutras embodies the principle of impermanence.
- The title of the Wisdom sutras embodies analytical emptiness, the merely-middle, and the non-merely-middle.
- The title of the Flower Garland sutra embodies the merely-middle and the non-merely-middle.
- The titles of the Mahāvairocana, Correct and Equal, and Wisdom sutras encompass analytical emptiness, merely-empty, embodied emptiness, non-merely-empty, merely-middle, and non-merely-middle.
However, even though these appear to expound profound teachings in their own right, ultimately—as stated in the passage, “they have yet to hear of the benefit of the wonderful enlightenment of the mutual possession of the Ten Worlds, the hundred worlds and thousand factors, and the three thousand realms”—they are refuted on the grounds that the true, ultimate Law has not been revealed within them.